Teaching by Principles: Chapter 19
Teaching Writing
Research on Second Language Writing
1.
Composing vs. Writing
-The
process of writing requires an entirely different set of competencies and is
fundamentally different from speaking.
-The
upshot of the compositional nature of writing has produced writing pedagogy
that focuses students on how to generate ideas, how to organize them
coherently, how to use discourse markers and rhetorical conventions to put them
cohesively into a written text, how to revise text for clearer meaning, how to
edit text for appropriate grammar, and how to produce a final product.
2.
Process vs. Product
-In the product approach,
compositions were supposed to (a) meet certain standards of prescribed English
rhetorical style (b) reflect accurate grammar, and (c) be organized
inconformity with what the audience would consider to be conventional.
-Process
approach
˙focus on the process
of writing that leads to the final written product;
˙help student writers
to understand their own composing process;
˙help them to build
repertoires of strategies for prewriting, drafting and rewriting;
˙give students time to
write and rewrite;
˙place central
importance on the process of revision;
˙let students discover
what they want to say as they write;
˙give students feedback
throughout the composing process (not just on the final product) as they
attempt to bring their expression closer and closer to intention;
˙encourage feedback
from both the instructor and peers;
˙include individual
conferences between teacher and student during the process of composition.
-Peter
Elbow (1973: 14-16)’s conception of thinking
process (pp.336-337)
-However,
the product is, after all, the ultimate goal.
-Process
is not the end; it is the means to the end.
3.
Contrastive rhetoric
-Kaplan
argued that different languages (and their cultures) have different patterns of
written discourse.
-Although
native language patterns of thinking and writing simply cannot be ruled out,
rather than holding a dogmatic or predictive view (that certain writers will
experience difficulty because of their native language), you would be more
prudent to adopt a “weak” position (PLLT, Ch. 8) in which you would consider a
student’s cultural/literacy schemata as only one possible source of difficulty.
-A
theory of contrastive rhetoric is influenced by more than first language
patterns; factors such as linguistic relativity, theory of rhetoric, text
linguistics, discourse types and genres, literacy, and translation all contribute
toward a comprehensive theory of contrastive rhetoric.
-The
significance of valuing students’ native-language-related rhetorical
traditions, and of guiding them through a process of understanding those
schemata while not attempting to
eradicate them.
-The
self-understanding on the part of students may then lend itself to a more
effective appreciation and use of English rhetorical conventions.
4.
Differences between L1 and L2 writing
-L2
writers did less planning and that they were less fluent (used fewer words),
less accurate (made more errors), and less effective in stating goals and organizing
material.
-Differences
in using appropriate grammatical and rhetorical conventions and lexical variety
were also found.
-It
is important to determine appropriate approaches to writing instruction for L2
writers in different contexts.
-Writing
teachers need to be equipped to deal effectively with the sociocultural and
linguistic differences of L2 students.
-The
assessment of L2 writing may need to take into account the fundamental
differences between most L1 and L2 writing.
5.
Authenticity
-In
Western society, the average colleague-educated person actually does little
writing and that little amount to filling out forms, writing telephone
messages, e-mailing, and occasionally dashing off a letter or post card.
-English
for Academic Purposes (EAS): Short phrases, brief paragraphs, brief reports,
full-length research paper.
-Vocational-technical
English: form, simple messages, conventional reports, brief business letter
-Adult
education and survival English class: simple forms, questionnaires
-Real writing: writing when the reader
doesn’t know the answer and genuinely wants information.
-Display writing: In many academic/school
contexts, if the instructor is the sole reader, writing is primarily for the
display of a student’s knowledge.
-If
ESL courses strive to be more content-based, theme-based, or task-based,
students are more likely to be given the opportunity to convey genuine
information on topics of intrinsic interest.
-Writing
to display one’s knowledge is a fact of life in the classroom, and by getting
your students to perform well in display writing exercises, they can learn
skills that will help them to succeed in further academic pursuits.
6.
The role of the teacher
-As
students are encouraged (in reading) to bring their own schemata to bear on
understanding texts, and in writing to develop their own ideas, offer their own
critical analysis, and fins their own “voice,” the role of teacher must be one
of the facilitator and coach, not an authoritative director and arbiter.
-As
a facilitator, the teacher offers guidance on helping students to engage in the
thinking process of composing but, in a spirit of respect for student opinion,
must not impose his or her own thoughts on student writing.
-Guidelines
for making teacher commentary more effective (Dana Ferris, 1997)
˙When teachers (a) requested
specific information and (b) made summary comments on grammar, more substantive
student revisions ensued than when teachers (a) posed question and (b) made
positive comments.
Characteristics of Written
Language: A Writer’s View
1.
Permanence
-Whatever
you can do as a teacher, guide, and facilitator to help your students to revise
and refine their work before final submission will help give them confidence in
their work.
2.
Production time
-Sacrificing
some process time, but with sufficient training in process writing, combined
with practice in display writing, you can help your students deal with time
limitations.
3.
Distance
-The
distance factor requires what might be termed “cognitive” empathy, in that good
writers can “read” their own writing from the perspective of the mind of the
targeted audience.
-Writers
need to be able to predict the audience’s general knowledge, cultural and
literary schemata, specific subject –matter knowledge, and very important, how
their choice of language will be interpreted.
4.
Orthography
5.
Complexity
-Writers
must learn how to remove redundancy (which may not jibe with their first
language rhetorical tradition), how to combine sentences, how to make
references to other elements in text, how to create syntactic and lexical
variety, and much more.
6.
Vocabulary
7.
Formality
-For
ESL students, the most difficult and complex conventions occur in academic
writing where students have to learn how to describe, explain, compare,
contrast, illustrate, defend, criticize, and argue.
Types of Classroom Writing
Performance
1.
Imitative, or writing down
-Dictation
steps
˙Teacher reads a short paragraph
once or twice at normal speed.
˙Teacher reads the paragraph in
short phrase units of three or four words each, and each unit is followed by a
pause.
˙During the pause, students write
exactly what they hear.
˙Teacher then reads the whole
paragraph once more at normal speed so students can check their writing.
˙Scoring of students’ written work
can utilize a number of rubrics for assigning points. Usually spelling and
punctuation errors are not considered as severe as grammatical errors.
2.
Intensive, or controlled
-The
intensive writing typically appears in controlled, written grammar exercises.
-A
common form of controlled writing is
to present a paragraph to students in which they have to alter a given structure
throughout.
-
Guided writing lessens the teacher’s
control but still offers a series of stimulators.
-In
dicto-comp, a paragraph is read at
normal speed, usually two or three times; then the teacher asks students to
rewrite the paragraph to the best of their recollections of the reading.
3.
Self-writing
-In
note-taking, students take notes
during a lecture for the purpose of later recall.
-In
dialogue journal, a student records
thoughts, feelings, and reactions and which an instructor reads and responds
to, while ostensibly written for oneself, has two audiences.
4.
Display Writing
-Short
answer exercises, essay examinations, and even research reports will involve an
element of display.
5.
Real writing
-Academic: Language Experience Approach
(LEA)(pp. 239-240), context-based instruction, group problem-solving tasks,
peer-editing work.
-Vocational/technical: real letters,
genuine directions for some operation or assembly, actual forms.
-Personal: diaries, letters, postcards,
notes, personal messages, other informal writing
Principles for Designing Writing
Techniques
1.
Incorporate practices of good “writers”
-focus
on a goal or main idea in writing,
-perceptively
gauge their audience,
-spend
some time (but not too much!) planning to write,
-easily
let their first ideas flow onto the paper,
-follow
a general organizational plan as they write,
-solicit
and utilize feedback on their writing,
-are
not wedded to certain surface structures,
-revise
their work willingly and efficiently,
-patiently
makes as many revisions as needed.
2.
Balance process and product.
-Make
sure that students are carefully led through appropriate stages in the process
of composing.
-Careful
attention to your own role as a guide and as a responder
-Don’t
get so caught up in the stages leading up to the final product that you lose
sight of the ultimate attainment: a clear, articulate, well-organized,
effective piece of writing.
3.
Account for cultural/literary
backgrounds.
-Try
to help students to understand what it is, exactly, that they are accustomed to
and then, by degrees, bring them to the use of acceptable English rhetoric.
4.
Content reading and writing.
-By
reading and studying a variety of relevant types of text, students can gain
important insights both about how they should write and about subject matter that
may become the topic of their writing.
5.
Provide as much authentic writing as
possible.
-It
can still be authentic in that the purpose for writing are clear to the
students, the audience is specified overtly, and there is at least some intent
to convey meaning.
-Sharing
writing with other students in the class is one way to add authenticity.
-Publishing
a class newsletter, writing letters to people outside of class, writing a
script for a skit or dramatic presentation, writing a resume, writing
advertisement—all these can be seen as authentic writing.
6. Frame your techniques in terms of
prewriting, drafting, and revising stages.
-The
prewriting stages encourages the
generation of ideas, which can happen in numerous ways.
˙reading (extensively)
a passage
˙skimming and/or
scanning a passage
˙conducting some
outside research
˙brainstorming
˙listing (in writing—individually)
˙clustering (begin with
a key word, then add other words, using free assocaition)
˙discussing a topic or
question
˙instructor-initiated
questions and probes
˙freewriting
-The
drafting and revising stages are the core of process writing.
˙getting started
(adapting the freewriting technique)
˙“optimal” monitoring
of one’s writing (without premature editing and diverted attention to wording,
grammar, etc.)
˙peer-reviewing for
content (accepting/using classmates’ comments)
˙using the instructor’s
feedback
˙editing for
grammatical errors
˙“read aloud” technique
(in small groups or pairs, students read their almost-final drafts to each
other for a final check on errors, flow of ideas, etc.)
˙proofreading
7.
Strive to offer techniques that are as
interactive as possible.
-A
process-oriented approach to writing instruction is, by definition,
interactive, as well as learner-centered.
-Writing
techniques that focus on purposes other than compositions are also subject to
the principles of interactive classrooms.
-Group
collaboration, brainstorming, and critiquing are as easily and successfully a
part of many writing-focused techniques.
8. Sensitively apply methods of responding to
and correcting your students’ writing.
-As
a student receives responses to written work, errors—just one of several
possible things to respond to—are rarely changed outright by the instructor;
rather, they are treated through self-correction, peer-correction, and
instructor-initiated comments.
-Ideally,
your responses—or at least some of them—will be written and oral as you hold a
conference, however short, with a student.
-Under
less than ideal conditions, written comments may have to suffice.
-Guidelines
for responding to the first draft and subsequent drafts (pp. 355-356)
9.
Clearly instruct students on the
rhetorical, formal conventions of writing.
-Make
formal properties explicit.
-Features
of English rhetorical discourse in writing
˙a clear statement of
the thesis or topic or purpose’
˙use of main ideas to
develop or clarify the thesis
˙use of supporting
ideas
˙supporting by “telling”:
describing
˙supporting by “showing”:
giving evidence, facts, statistics, etc.
˙supporting by linking
cause and effect
˙supporting by using comparison
and/or contrast
Evaluating Student Writing
-The
key to being a judge is fairness and explicitness in what you take into account
in your evaluation.
-Categories
for evaluating writing (Table 19.2 in p. 357)
-The
order in which the six are listed in the table at the very least emphasized the
importance of content over syntax and vocabulary, which traditionally might
have had high priority.
-The
most instructive evaluative feedback you can give is your comments, both
specific and summative, regarding the student’s work.
-If
numerical scores are either pedagogically or administratively important to you,
then you can establish a point scale for each of the categories and return
papers with six different scores on them.
-A
key to successful evaluation is to get your student to understand that your
grade, scores, and other comments are varied forms of feedback from which they
can benefit.
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